Parent education (might) matter
A significant body of published research does
suggest that, as the education level of parents
goes up, so does the academic achievement of
their children.[1]
However, while this relationship
is consistently observed, why it occurs is not
fully understood (more on that later).[2]
And it’s
important to note that these studies only show a
correlation, not causation.
Things are even less clear when examining
homeschool-specific research on the matter.
While the nature of homeschooling makes such
research difficult, a number of studies have
examined the relationship between parent education and student achievement in homeschool
settings.
Unlike traditionally schooled students, the
results are not clear cut, and studies seem to
slot into one of three categories.
- Several studies have found no statistically
significant correlation between parent education and student achievement.[3]
- Others found a relationship that was
statistically significant but small enough
to have little practical effect on student
achievement.[4]
- Still other studies found a correlation large
enough to practically affect achievement,
but the strength of this relationship varied
from study to study.[5]
In short: it’s difficult to find any real pattern.
Sample size does not necessarily predict which
category the study falls into, although larger
studies tend to show a more significant relationship (as is the case with all statistics). And the
distribution of parent education level was similar in most of the studies. The studies applied a
variety of research methods, but that seems to
have had no effect on outcomes or the category
for a study.
One of the more comprehensive studies did
directly compare homeschool students with
public school students, but parent education
level was not found to affect the outcome.[6]
Another note: Many of these studies are older
and may not accurately represent the current
practice of homeschooling, curricular developments, or demographics.
Education research . . .
These inconsistencies are curious and invite
further investigation. Many of these studies
suffer from the common limitations that make
all homeschool research difficult, especially
the older studies. By design, homeschooling is
highly individualized, which makes research
challenging.
Smaller studies can more precisely examine
the individual practices of unique homeschools,
but the small sample sizes make it difficult to
generalize from the results.[7]
On the other hand,
larger studies tend not to account for the full
spectrum of methodologies, instead grouping
students into large binary categories, or not
addressing methodology at all.[8]
With one exception, these studies did not
account for homeschool methodology. There
was no mention of whether students participated in co-ops, distance learning, dual-enrollment,
or private tutoring. Furthermore, there was no
indication of curricula or teaching methods.
Anecdotally, these variables can and do contribute to vastly different experiences from one
homeschool student to the next.
That said, the fact that studies of homeschool students disagree on the role of parent
education is worthy of consideration because,
with few exceptions, studies of traditionally
schooled students find that parent education
is significantly related to student achievement.
Thus far, no one has undertaken to explain
these contradictory results. Sampling methods
could be a contributing factor, as it has proved
difficult in the past to get a random sample of
homeschool populations. Many studies have
had to rely on volunteers from testing services,
umbrella schools, and homeschool groups. And
while this doesn’t invalidate these studies, it
does potentially introduce some limitations,
such as self-selection bias, or how representative a sample may be.
Another reason for these inconsistencies
was suggested by Robert Kunzman and Milton
Gaither, who note that some elements of
homeschooling may serve to exaggerate results
from the highest and lowest performers at the
extremes of academic achievement,[9] which
could contribute to why some studies have
found that parent education plays a significant
role.
If the extremes at either end of the distribution are greater, it creates more statistical
outliers, which can serve to exaggerate an otherwise insignificant relationship. Other family
background variables associated with parent
education—such as household income—might
also be contributing factors to these findings.
. . . and its many perils
Interestingly, several of the studies that are
often cited on this matter do not directly address
parent education, but rather ancillary factors
that are sometimes related. In these cases, the
researchers attribute an outcome to parent
education levels, rather than set out to study
the relationship between parent education
and academic achievement. For example, when
Lyn Bolter found a gradual decline in student
achievement scores the longer a student was
homeschooled, she attributed it to the relatively
low levels of parent education in her sample
without discussing other potential factors.[10]
In other cases, critics argue for parent
education regulation using studies that never
directly mention parent education. In a 2005
study, Clive Belfield found that SAT scores
among all students increased with socioeconomic status, which is often positively related
to parent education.[11] However, the increase
was larger for homeschooling students, which
potentially suggests a greater influence coming from family background in general, rather
than parent education specifically.
Finally, in a small-scale case study, Kunzman
immersed himself in the day-to-day activities
of six homeschooling families across the country over a period of two years. Kunzman found
that the instructional quality varied drastically
based on family background variables, including the parent’s education level.[12] However,
Kunzman did not note whether this affected
academic performance.
Research on parent involvement
While research shows varying degrees of
relationship between parent education and
student achievement, none of the studies
mentioned so far attempt to explain why
this relationship exists, either in a home or
traditional education setting. This leaves the
broader question of why parent education
might affect student achievement unanswered.
And this is where it gets especially interesting
for homeschooling families.
Research suggests that a parent’s education
level may not directly affect student achievement as much as it affects other variables that
do, such as parent involvement and socioeconomic status. The suggestion is this: Parents
who have achieved higher levels of education
will value and emphasize education, in turn
leading to higher levels of parent involvement,
higher expectations for their child’s academic
achievement, and more educational opportunities for their child outside of the classroom.[13]
A 2010 study of 3rd grade literacy in
Sweden seems to support this theory.
Researchers found that while parent education level had a small direct relationship to
literacy, it had a compounding impact on
other variables, such as the number of books
in the home and the amount of time spent in
early childhood reading activities.[14]
Data from the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES) further supports these findings. A 2017 report noted an increase in the percentage of public school students who did
their homework outside of school, had a place
set aside to do so, and had their work checked
by an adult, based on the educational achievement of their parents. Additionally, the higher
the level of education attained by a parent, the
more likely they were to be involved at their
child’s school and take their children to libraries, bookstores, plays, concerts, museums,
galleries, and historical sites.[15]
These studies and the NCES report seem to
support a link between parent education and
parent involvement, the latter of which has
long been understood to be one of the most
significant determining factors in a student’s
academic success. The research on the matter is
overwhelming,[16] and if parent education levels
and parent involvement are directly related,
as these and other studies suggest,[17] it may
explain why research consistently finds a link
in traditional educational settings.
This also has implications for homeschooling families who, by the very nature
of homeschooling, are far more involved
in their child’s education than parents
of traditionally schooled children. It’s
possible that, because of this involvement, homeschooling could affect the
strength of the relationship between
parent education and student achievement.
Because homeschooling parents have
personally taken on the responsibility of their
child’s education, they are naturally more
involved in their child’s education, and may
place a greater emphasis on education than
other parents of similar education levels. In
fact, a recent study examined homeschool parent involvement as a model for traditionally
schooled families.[18]
A 2004 study seems to add further credence
to this idea. Researchers sought to determine
whether the high test scores reported by Ray
and Rudner were influenced by increased
parent involvement. They surveyed 127 public
school seniors to determine their perceived
level of parent involvement. Those who
reported higher levels of parent involvement
significantly outperformed those who did not,
and were on par with the national average
ACT scores for homeschool students.[19]
Thus far, no studies have been constructed
specifically to compare whether parent education level affects homeschool and public school
students equally. Such a study would likely help
to provide some clarity on the matter. Additionally, this does not take into account other potential socioeconomic factors that may be affected
by parent education levels.
One factor of many
The influence of family and socioeconomic
factors on student achievement is complex,
and seldom is there a clean-cut relationship
between the two. The research on this matter
is conflicting and needs further study before
strong conclusions can be drawn.
It is critical to note, however, that even if
parent education and socioeconomic factors
affect achievement for homeschool students,
the same is also true for public and private
school students. This, combined with consistent evidence over the years that homeschool
students across demographic lines perform
on par with their public and private school
peers, indicates that parent education alone
does not determine outcomes for homeschool
students.
Parent education is only a single factor,
and while it may or may not impact student
achievement, high parent involvement has
repeatedly been shown to contribute to academic success, and homeschooling parents
are more involved in their child’s education
than any other parents in the world.
Endnotes
[1] Julie Nelson, “Impact of Parent Education on Student Success,” Utah Valley University, (2009); Eva Myrberg and Monica Rosén, “Direct
and Indirect Effects of Parents’ Education on Reading Achievement Among Third Graders in Sweden, British Journal of Educational
Psychology 70, no. 4 (2009): 695-711; Eric Dubow, Paul Boxer, and L. Rowell Heusmann, “Long Term Effects of Parents’ Education on
Children’s Educational and Occupational Success: Mediation by Family Interactions, Child Aggression, and Teenage Aspirations,” MerillPalmer Quarterly (Wayne State University Press) 55, no. 3 (2009), 224-249; and others.
[2] Ricarda Steinmayr, Felix C. Dinger, and Brigit Spinath, “Parents’ Education and Children’s Achievement: The Role of Personality,” European Journal of Personality 24, no. 6 (2010): 535-550.
[3] Jeannie F. Rakestraw, “Homeschooling in Alabama,” Home School Researcher 4, no. 4 (1988): 1-6; Joan E. Havens, “Parent Education
Levels as they Relate to Academic Achievement Among Home Schooled Children,” Home School Researcher 10, no. 4 (1994): 9-15; Sandra
Martin-Chang, Odette N. Gould, and Reanne E. Meuse, “The Impact of Schooling on Academic Achievement: Evidence from Homeschooled and Traditionally Schooled Students,” Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science 43, no. 3 (2011): 195-202.
[4] Jon Wartes, “Summary of Two Reports from the Washington Homeschool Research Project, 1987,” Home School Researcher 4, no. 2
(1988): 1-4; Howard B. Richman, William Girten, and Jay Snyder, “Academic Achievement and its Relation to Selected Variables Among
Pennsylvania Homeschoolers,” Home School Researcher 6, no. 4 (1990): 9-16; Brian D. Ray, Strengths of Their Own: Home Schoolers Across
America (Salem, OR: NEHRI Publications, 1997).
[5] Richard Medlin, “Predictors of Academic Achievement in Home Educated Children: Aptitude, Self-Concept, and Pedagogical Practices,”
Home School Researcher 10, no. 3 (1994); Lawrence Rudner, “Scholastic Achievement and Demographic Characteristics of Home School
Students in 1998,” Education Policy Analysis Archives 7, no. 8 (1999); Ed Collom, “The Ins and Outs of Homeschooling: The Determinants of
Parental Motivations and Student Achievement,” Education and Urban Society 37, no. 3 (2005): 307-335; Brian D. Ray, “Academic Achievement and Demographic Traits of Homeschool Students: A Nationwide Study,” Academic Leadership: The Online Journal 8, no. 1 (2010).
[6] Martin-Chang, “The Impact of Schooling,” 2011.
[7] Martin-Chang, “The Impact of Schooling,” 2011; Robert Kunzman, Write These Laws on Your Children: Inside the World of Conservative
Christian Homeschooling, (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2009).
[8]
Rudner, “Scholastic Achievement,” 1999; Ray, “Academic Achievement,” 2010.
[9] Milton Gaither and Robert Kunzman, “Homeschooling: An Updated Comprehensive Survey of the
Research,” Other Education: The Journal of Educational
Alternatives 9, no. 1 (2020): 253-336.
[10] Lyn T. Bolter, “Academic Achievement in Home School Education,” (1999).
[11] Clive Belfield, “Home Schoolers: How Well Do they Perform on the SAT for College Admissions?” Home Schooling in Full View: A
Reader, ed. Bruce S. Cooper (Charlotte, NC: Information Age, 2005).
[12] Kunzman, Write These Laws, 2009.
[13] David L. Stevenson and David P. Baker “The Family-School Relation and the Child’s School Performance,” Child Development 58,
no. 5 (1987): 183-197; Meghan McQuiggan and Mahi Megra, “Parent and Family Involvement in Education: Results from the National
Household Education Surveys Program of 2016,” National Center for Education Statistics (2017); Laura Lippman, Lina Guzman, Julie
Dombrowski Kieth, Akemi Kinukawa, Rebecca Shwalb, and Peter Tice, “Parent Expectations and Planning for College: Statistical Analysis
Report (NCES 2008-079),” National Center for Education Statistics (2008).
[14] Myrberg, “Direct and Indirect Effects,” 2010.
[15] McQuiggan, “Parent and Family Involvement,” 2017.
[16] María Castro, Eva Expósito-Casas, Esther López-Martín, Luis Lizasoain, Enrique Navarro-Ascencio, and José Luis Gavrina, “Parental
Involvement on Student Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis,” Educational Research Review 14, no. 1 (2015): 33-46; Lisa Boonk,
Hieronymus JM Gijselaers, Henk Ritzen, and Sakia Brand Gruwel, “A Review of the Relationship Between Parental Involvement Indicators
and Academic Achievement,” Educational Research Review 24 (2018): 10-30; Sandra Wilder, “Effects of Parental Involvement on Academic
Achievement: A Meta-Synthesis,” Educational Review 66, no. 3 (2013): 377-397; Xitao Fan and Michael Chen, “Parental Involvement and
Students Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis,” Educational Psychology Review 13 (2001): 1-22; Șahin Danisman, “The Effect of
Parent Involvement on Student Achievement,” in The Factors Affecting Student Achievement: A Meta Analysis of Empirical Studies, ed.
Engin Karadag (Cham, Switzerland: Springer International, 2017), 271-290; Steven R. Hara and Daniel J. Burke, “Parent Involvement: the
Key to Improved Student Achievement,” School Community Journal 8, no. 2 (1998): 9-19; David P. Topor, Susan P Keane, Terri L. Shelton,
and Susan D. Calkins, “Parent Involvement and Student Academic Performance: A Multiple Mediational Analysis,” Journal of Prevention &
Intervention in the Community 38, no. 3 (2010): 183-187; and others.
[17] Stevenson, “The Family-School Relation,” 1987; Myrberg, “Direct and Indirect Effects,” 2010.
[18] Kenneth V. Anthony and Mark Wildmon, “Broadening the Concept of Parent Involvement: Homeschool Families as a Pattern for Traditional School Parent Involvement,” Journal of Unschooling and Alternative Learning 17, no. 33 (2023).
[19] Laura M. Barwegen, Nancy K Falciani, S. Junlah Putnam, Megan B. Reamer, and Esther E. Stair, “Academic Achievement of Homeschool
and Public School Students and Student Perception of Parent Involvement,” School Community Journal 14, no. 1 (2004): 39-58.
